Editing Precision Thermocouple Based Temperature Measurement System (section)

=== 2.1. Seebeck Effect ===
The Seebeck effect describes the generation of an electrical potential across a material subjected to a temperature gradient. When a thermal difference is imposed, charge carriers at the high-temperature end possess greater thermal energy and diffuse preferentially toward the cooler region, establishing a charge imbalance that induces an internal electric field. Equilibrium is reached when this field opposes further carrier migration, and the resulting open-circuit voltage called the Seebeck voltage which is linearly proportional to the applied temperature difference:

<math>
V = S \cdot \Delta T
</math>

where:
* <math>V</math> = thermoelectric voltage  
* <math>S</math> = Seebeck coefficient (µV/K)  
* <math>\Delta T</math> = temperature across the sample

The sign of S directly reflects the dominant carrier type. A negative Seebeck Coefficient is characteristic of electron-dominated (n-type) transport, while a positive value indicates hole conduction (p-type).Here in our work, ΔT is determined from the readings of two K-type thermocouples placed in contact with the sample surface, and V is acquired using a nanovoltmeter. Four voltage readings are recorded at each ΔT increment and subsequently averaged to minimise the effect of short-term measurement fluctuations. The Seebeck coefficient is then extracted from the slope of a linear fit applied to the V versus ΔT dataset.